[240][243], Escalating the scale of American intervention in the ongoing conflict between Ngô Đình Diệm's South Vietnamese government and the communist National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) insurgents opposing it, Johnson deployed some 575,000 troops in Southeast Asia to defeat the NLF and their North Vietnamese allies in the Vietnam War, but his costly policy weakened the US economy and, by 1975, it ultimately culminated in what most of the world saw as a humiliating defeat of the world's most powerful superpower at the hands of one of the world's poorest nations. After this, Khrushchev made many desperate attempts to reconstitute the Sino-Soviet alliance, but Mao considered it useless and denied any proposal. [129] According to Norwegian historian Odd Arne Westad, the communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai-Shek made, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. [215] Accused of rudeness and incompetence, John Lewis Gaddis argues that Krhuschev was also credited with ruining Soviet agriculture, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war[216] and that Khrushchev had become an 'international embarrassment' when he authorized construction of the Berlin Wall. ), Paul (April 1968). [296] Both Reagan and new British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher denounced the Soviet Union and its ideology. Cold War Nuclear Target Lists Declassified for First Time, "On This Day June 16, 1989: Hungary reburies fallen hero Imre Nagy", "Military Advisors in Vietnam: 1963 | JFK Library", Official Energy Statistics of the US Government, Soviet Leaders Recall 'Inevitable' Breakup Of Soviet Union, "Country profile: United States of America", http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2016/03/180_180890.html, "It's Time to Stop Saying that JFK Inherited the Bay of Pigs Operation from Ike | History News Network", "Document obtained by National Security Archive, from National Archives Record Group 59. [citation needed], Although indirect conflict between Cold War powers continued through the late 1960s and early 1970s, tensions were beginning to ease. The incident increased support for military deployment, overseen by Reagan, which stood in place until the later accords between Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev. [92] From the beginning of the post-war period, Western Europe and Japan rapidly recovered from the destruction of World War II and sustained strong economic growth through the 1950s and 1960s, with per capita GDPs approaching those of the United States, while Eastern Bloc economies stagnated. [253] The Pinochet regime would go on to be one of the leading participants in Operation Condor, an international campaign of political assassination and state terrorism organized by right-wing military dictatorships in the Southern Cone of South America that was covertly supported by the US government. The Cold War lasted about 45 years. This directed the US's action to only push back North Korea across the 38th Parallel and restore South Korea's sovereignty while allowing North Korea's survival as a state. These would become the main bureaucracies for US defense policy in the Cold War. [137] A UN force of sixteen countries faced North Korea,[138] although 40 percent of troops were South Korean, and about 50 percent were from the United States. "[246] In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians. [146] While Rhee was overthrown in 1960, South Korea continued to be ruled by a military government of former Japanese collaborators until the re-establishment of a multi-party system in the late 1980s. [93] The Soviet Union's alternative to the Marshall Plan, which was purported to involve Soviet subsidies and trade with central and eastern Europe, became known as the Molotov Plan (later institutionalized in January 1949 as the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance). The speech, written by a journalist Herbert Bayard Swope,[7] proclaimed, "Let us not be deceived: we are today in the midst of a cold war. By the end of 1958, the rebels were militarily defeated, and the last remaining rebel guerilla bands surrendered by August 1961. [278] These Strategic Arms Limitation Talks resulted in two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. His main concern was the threat South Korea posed to North Korea's survival, for example fearing an invasion northward following U.S. military withdrawal in June 1949. "[172][173][174] The pro-Western shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, assumed control as an autocratic monarch. America's withdrawal from the war led it to embrace a policy of detente with both China and the Soviet Union. In February 1958, dissident military commanders in Central Sumatera (Colonel Ahmad Hussein) and North Sulawesi (Colonel Ventje Sumual) declared the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia-Permesta Movement aimed at overthrowing the Sukarno regime. [109] In addition, in accordance with the Marshall Plan, they began to re-industrialize and rebuild the west German economy, including the introduction of a new Deutsche Mark currency to replace the old Reichsmark currency that the Soviets had debased. [311], Tensions continued to intensify as Reagan revived the B-1 Lancer program, which had been canceled by the Carter administration, produced LGM-118 Peacekeeper missiles,[312] installed US cruise missiles in Europe, and announced the experimental Strategic Defense Initiative, dubbed "Star Wars" by the media, a defense program to shoot down missiles in mid-flight. Once again the East Berlin communists attempted to disrupt the Berlin municipal elections (as they had done in the 1946 elections),[108] which were held on 5 December 1948 and produced a turnout of 86.3% and an overwhelming victory for the non-communist parties. The USAMGK outlawed the PRK government. [66] That August, the first Soviet atomic device was detonated in Semipalatinsk, Kazakh SSR. [102] The CIA was also involved in European politics, especially in Italy. [83] In NSC 68, a secret 1950 document, the National Security Council instituted a Machiavellian policy [131] while proposing to reinforce pro-Western alliance systems and quadruple spending on defense. [335], East–West tensions rapidly subsided through the mid-to-late 1980s, culminating with the final summit in Moscow in 1989, when Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush signed the START I arms control treaty. [83], After 1956, the Sino-Soviet alliance began to break down. He argued that there was nothing surprising in "the fact that the Soviet Union, anxious for its future safety, [was] trying to see to it that governments loyal in their attitude to the Soviet Union should exist in these countries".[74][75]. [361] Much of the historiography on the Cold War weaves together two or even all three of these broad categories. The Truman administration intended to use its ongoing nuclear weapons program to pressure the Soviet Union in international relations. [249] About 11,000 Cuban troops spearheaded the primary effort, after receiving a hasty training on some of the newly delivered Soviet weapons systems by East German instructors. [337] In addition, the security advantage of a buffer zone was recognised as irrelevant and the Soviets officially declared that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of allied states in Central and Eastern Europe. The Truman Administration was receptive to the telegram due to broken promises by Stalin concerning Europe and Iran. The 1989 revolutionary wave swept across Central and Eastern Europe and peacefully overthrew all of the Soviet-style Marxist–Leninist states: East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria;[346] Romania was the only Eastern-bloc country to topple its communist regime violently and execute its head of state. It stood opposed to NATO. [260][261][262] The MPLA eventually requested direct military support from Moscow in the form of ground troops, but the Soviets declined, offering to send advisers but no combat personnel. [22] Britain and France, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to its entering the war on the side of the Germans, responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the USSR's expulsion from the League of Nations. The Chinese, fearful of a possible US invasion, sent in a large army and defeated the U.N. forces, pushing them back below the 38th parallel. Topics discussed included – Partitioning of Germany Fate of Poland The United Nations German reparations: May 8th 1945: V E Day But after the German Army invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa in June 1941 and declared war on the United States in December 1941, the Soviet Union and the Allied powers worked together to fight Germany. [93] Cominform faced an embarrassing setback the following June, when the Tito–Stalin Split obliged its members to expel Yugoslavia, which remained communist but adopted a non-aligned position. It was part of a larger regional conflict as well as a manifestation of the Cold War. [248] The Soviets initially attempted to exert a moderating influence on both states, but in November 1977 Barre broke off relations with Moscow and expelled his Soviet military advisers. [302][citation not found], Pope John Paul II provided a moral focus for anti-communism; a visit to his native Poland in 1979 stimulated a religious and nationalist resurgence centered on the Solidarity movement that galvanized opposition and may have led to his attempted assassination two years later. [27] Each side held dissimilar ideas regarding the establishment and maintenance of post-war security. At the same time, 1963–65, American domestic politics saw the triumph of liberalism. ", "Contradicting traditional assumptions, however, available declassified Soviet documents demonstrate that throughout 1949 Stalin consistently refused to approve Kim Il Sung's persistent requests to approve an invasion of South Korea. However, the Soviets probably had an advantage in terms of HUMINT (espionage) and "sometimes in its reach into high policy circles." In the 1960s–70s, an international peace movement took root among citizens around the world. [280], Kissinger and Nixon were "realists" who deemphasized idealistic goals like anti-communism or promotion of democracy worldwide, because those goals were too expensive in terms of America's economic capabilities. The East German Stasi, unlike the others, was primarily concerned with internal security, but its Main Directorate for Reconnaissance operated espionage activities around the world. [R] The USSR was declared officially dissolved on 26 December 1991. This period of hostility short of open war between the United States and the Soviet Union lasted from 1946 until 1991, according to the National Museum of American History. [186] For his part, Khrushchev, disturbed by Mao's glib attitude toward nuclear war, referred to the Chinese leader as a "lunatic on a throne".[187]. A Soviet-organized government, led by Parcham's Babrak Karmal but inclusive of both factions, filled the vacuum. [279], These developments coincided with Bonn's "Ostpolitik" policy formulated by the West German Chancellor Willy Brandt,[232] an effort to normalize relations between West Germany and Eastern Europe. On 25 February 1956, Khrushchev shocked delegates to the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party by cataloguing and denouncing Stalin's crimes. Around June 1977, Somali troops occupied the Ogaden and began advancing inland towards Ethiopian positions in the Ahmar Mountains. The Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955 in response to NATO. [361], "Orthodox" accounts place responsibility for the Cold War on the Soviet Union and its expansion further into Europe. The Soviet Union converted the territories it occupied into satellite states,[59] such as: The Soviet-style regimes that arose in the Bloc not only reproduced Soviet command economy, but also adopted the brutal methods employed by Joseph Stalin and the Soviet secret police in order to suppress both real and potential opposition. Michael Mandelbaum (Ed., 1996) "Post-Communism: Four Perspectives", supported right-wing governments and uprisings, achieved independence in the period 1945–1960, diplomatic, military, and economic pressures, Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, anti-Bolshevik "White" counter-revolutionaries, to station Soviet troops in their countries, Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and Hertza, converting Germany into a country primarily agricultural, United States Army Military Government in Korea, People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs, Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation, the end of the American atomic monopoly in 1949, United Nations Security Council Resolution 82, cataloguing and denouncing Stalin's crimes, an upswing in diplomacy took place in 1959, National Committee of Defense Against Communism, Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia, communist guerrilla war for Vietnamese independence, Diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States, Soviet approach to restricting emigration movement, Foreign policy of Charles de Gaulle § Partial withdrawal from NATO in 1966, Escalating the scale of American intervention, National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam, Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia, People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola, National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, used border areas of Cambodia as military bases, Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation, Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe, Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–81, Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States, "Where did banana republics get their name? [90] The plan also stated that European prosperity was contingent upon German economic recovery. [91] One month later, Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947, creating a unified Department of Defense, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the National Security Council (NSC). The first phase of the Cold War began immediately after the end of the Second World War in 1945. The Cold War was solidified by 1947–48, when U.S. aid had brought certain Western countries under American influence and the Soviets had established openly communist regimes. How long did the cold war last? Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but the period is generally considered to span the 1947 Truman Doctrine to the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union. "[5], The first use of the term to describe the specific post-war geopolitical confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States came in a speech by Bernard Baruch, an influential advisor to Democratic presidents,[6] on 16 April 1947. The Truman Administration was receptive to the telegram due to broken promises by Stalin concerning Europe and Iran. Within months, opponents of the communist government launched an uprising in eastern Afghanistan that quickly expanded into a civil war waged by guerrilla mujahideen against government forces countrywide. [254][255][256], On 24 April 1974, the Carnation Revolution succeeded in ousting Marcelo Caetano and Portugal's right-wing Estado Novo government, sounding the death knell for the Portuguese Empire. In terms of decisive impact, however, he concludes:[105], In addition to usual espionage, the Western agencies paid special attention to debriefing Eastern Bloc defectors. Khrushchev backed down from a confrontation, and the Soviet Union removed the missiles in return for a public American pledge not to invade Cuba again as well as a covert deal to remove US missiles from Turkey. [163], During November 1958, Khrushchev made an unsuccessful attempt to turn all of Berlin into an independent, demilitarized "free city". [198] Castro responded by publicly embracing Marxism–Leninism, and the Soviet Union pledged to provide further support. [231] The invasion sparked intense protests from Yugoslavia, Romania, China, and from Western European communist parties. Soviet troops were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal in more substantial numbers, although the Soviet government did not expect to do most of the fighting in Afghanistan. According to John Lewis Gaddis, Khrushchev rejected Stalin's "belief in the inevitability of war," however. The Americans and British refused to fix a dollar amount for reparations, but they permitted the Soviets to remove some industry from their zones. June 7, 2012. [43] The Soviets pressed their demand made at Yalta, for $20 billion of reparations to be taken from Germany occupation zones. We could be seeing a period of foreign movement at a time of internal decay". [226] De Gaulle considered the response he received to be unsatisfactory, and began the development of an independent French nuclear deterrent. Every time I want to make the West scream, I squeeze on Berlin. Mao had defended Stalin when Khrushchev criticized him in 1956, and treated the new Soviet leader as a superficial upstart, accusing him of having lost his revolutionary edge. It directed the US forces of occupation to "...take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany". Neither one was willing to move openly for fear that the other would use those weapons. [E] Some believe it was Joseph Stalin who started it by saying, “He hated westerners in the same way as Hitler hated Jews. [194], Diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States continued for some time after Batista's fall, but President Eisenhower deliberately left the capital to avoid meeting Castro during the latter's trip to Washington, DC in April, leaving Vice President Richard Nixon to conduct the meeting in his place. [112] The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several other countries began the massive "Berlin airlift", supplying West Berlin with food and other provisions. [139], The US initially seemed to follow containment when it first entered the war. The Socialist states—with the exception of China and Romania—broke off relations with Chile. [165], Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, manifested by proxy contests. Central and Eastern European territories that the Soviet army liberated from Germany were added to the Eastern Bloc, pursuant to the Percentages Agreement between Churchill and Stalin. [citation needed] Although pre-Sadat Egypt had been the largest recipient of Soviet aid in the Middle East, the Soviets were also successful in establishing close relations with communist South Yemen, as well as the nationalist governments of Algeria and Iraq. [188] Further on, the Soviets focused on a bitter rivalry with Mao's China for leadership of the global communist movement. [235], In Indonesia, the hardline anti-communist General Suharto wrested control of the state from his predecessor Sukarno in an attempt to establish a "New Order". He called on cities to prepare fallout shelters for nuclear war. Independence movements in the Third World transformed the post-war order into a more pluralistic world of decolonized African and Middle Eastern nations and of rising nationalism in Asia and Latin America. Meanwhile, Brezhnev attempted to revive the Soviet economy, which was declining in part because of heavy military expenditures. 6 on the Metacritic annual Best New TV Shows list; its six-season run concluded in May 2018. [340] When the Berlin Wall came down, Gorbachev's "Common European Home" concept began to take shape. "[213], The Cuban Missile Crisis (October–November 1962) brought the world closer to nuclear war than ever before. Is the Coronavirus Crisis Increasing America's Drug Overdoses? The INF treaty eliminated all nuclear-armed, ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers (300 to 3,400 miles) and their infrastructure. [359] The Cold War also marked the zenith of peacetime military–industrial complexes, especially in the United States, and large-scale military funding of science. [361] These complexes, though their origins may be found as early as the 19th century, snowballed considerably during the Cold War. [citation needed] Following the WWII Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran, the country was occupied by the Red Army in the far north and the British in the south. [245] Iraq signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union in 1972. From 1965 to 1966, with the aid of the United States and other Western governments,[236][237][238][239][240] the military led the mass killing of more than 500,000 members and sympathizers of the Indonesian Communist Party and other leftist organizations, and detained hundreds of thousands more in prison camps around the country under extremely inhumane conditions. [48][49] On September 8, 1945, the United States government landed forces in Korea and thereafter established the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGK) to govern Korea south of the 38th parallel north. [127], In the early 1950s, the US worked for the rearmament of West Germany and, in 1955, secured its full membership of NATO. [361] "Post-revisionists" see the events of the Cold War as more nuanced, and attempt to be more balanced in determining what occurred during the Cold War. [122], Along with the broadcasts of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and the Voice of America to Central and Eastern Europe,[123] a major propaganda effort begun in 1949 was Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, dedicated to bringing about the peaceful demise of the communist system in the Eastern Bloc. In late February 1946, George F. Kennan's "Long Telegram" from Moscow to Washington helped to articulate the US government's increasingly hard line against the Soviets, which would become the basis for US strategy toward the Soviet Union for the duration of the Cold War. Contemplating a world living in the shadow of the threat of nuclear warfare, Orwell looked at James Burnham's predictions of a polarized world, writing: Looking at the world as a whole, the drift for many decades has been not towards anarchy but towards the reimposition of slavery... James Burnham's theory has been much discussed, but few people have yet considered its ideological implications—that is, the kind of world-view, the kind of beliefs, and the social structure that would probably prevail in a state which was at once unconquerable and in a permanent state of "cold war" with its neighbours. Orwell’s dire prediction began to take shape in 1945. [182] Embarrassed by the landslide electoral victory of Jagan's allegedly Marxist party, the British imprisoned the PPP's leadership and maneuvered the organization into a divisive rupture in 1955, engineering a split between Jagan and his PPP colleagues. Instead Nixon and Kissinger sought to downsize America's global commitments in proportion to its reduced economic, moral and political power. [43], The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 occurred shortly after Khrushchev arranged the removal of Hungary's Stalinist leader Mátyás Rákosi. [259] When the Soviets began supplying the MPLA with arms, the CIA and China offered substantial covert aid to the FNLA and UNITA. [314], After Reagan's military buildup, the Soviet Union did not respond by further building its military,[315] because the enormous military expenses, along with inefficient planned manufacturing and collectivized agriculture, were already a heavy burden for the Soviet economy. Following the Cuban Missile Crisis, a new phase began that saw the Sino-Soviet split between China and the Soviet Union complicate relations within the Communist sphere, while US ally France began to demand greater autonomy of action. Kennedy implemented a new strategy known as flexible response. "It is this: We win and they lose. What Bill gave soldiers a higher education and low mortgage rates ? For the general term, see, "Cold warrior" redirects here. [320], American domestic public concerns about intervening in foreign conflicts persisted from the end of the Vietnam War. As a result of the Sino-Soviet split, tensions along the Chinese–Soviet border reached their peak in 1969, and United States President Richard Nixon decided to use the conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War. It failed everywhere; it was crushed when it tried to start revolutions in Germany, Bavaria, and Hungary. During the speech, Brezhnev stated:[229]. [133] Meanwhile, Moscow was forced to turn its attention inward to deal with the Soviet Union's deep-seated domestic economic problems. [289] Meanwhile, increasing friction between the competing factions of the PDPA—the dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham—resulted in the dismissal of Parchami cabinet members and the arrest of Parchami military officers under the pretext of a Parchami coup. This buildup was accelerated by the Reagan administration, which increased the military spending from 5.3 percent of GNP in 1981 to 6.5 percent in 1986,[310] the largest peacetime defense buildup in United States history. 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