The author’s latest book, Bending Basics, is now available at the FMA bookstore, www.fmanet.org/store. Whether you experience cracking when bending with the grain depends on your material and the application. To predict the material’s behavior accurately during bending, especially at the press brake, you need to accommodate for the grain direction. With the right tools, you can easily straighten aluminum yourself rather than spending money on a … You can make a bend with a tighter inside radius without cracking if the bend line is across the grain, rather than parallel. Another question. As a general rule, the grain line must run perpendicular to the bend to avoid the potential for cracking or fracture. Send a private message to crystallographic, http://www.alcotec.com/us/en/solutio...ion-System.cfm. You also want to bend the metal against the grain for less chance of cracking, bending metal with the grain is a sure way of it cracking. At least once a day I hear, “Can we please just go back to bottom bending?” What are we missing that makes parts so difficult to manufacture? But when it comes to forming, that’s another story. Bending metal against the grain or perpendicular to the grain is a common way to prevent material failure or cracking. Understanding Grain Direction We show you two ways to read grain direction (even in rough stock) that will help you get tear-out-free surfaces. During forming, cold-rolled steel is strongest when a bend is made against the grain, weaker when bent with the grain. If the grain runs up and down, cut left to right. Grain direction also plays into the amount of springback you can expect. • Products include metal desks, file cabinets, appliances, car bodies, beverage cans • Common materials: low-carbon steel, aluminum or Depends on if you are bending with the grain or against it. This allows the steel to form a uniform microstructure and resets the grain structure to something similar to an untreated steel microstructure. Background. Step 2 Check to make sure your line is straight before you fold. That said, forming with the grain takes less pressure to make a bend. When the steel cools, scarring or scaling makes the steel look like it has a burnt crust. Fortunately for you, 6061 is the cheapest garbage metal which allows it to be welded. These grains vary in size and in orientation but are usually microscopic and their direction is determined by the processing conditions. The punch/laser has been incredible; it’s fast, and the parts in the flat are dead on the money. A scrap 2x4 or 4x4 board will do just fine for most projects. Regardless, when it comes to the grain direction in parts destined for bending, consistency is key. You can make a bend with a tighter inside radius without cracking if the bend line is across the grain, rather than parallel. For most aluminum sheet, the inside radius of the bend should at least be equal to the sheet thickness. When you tear the paper against the grain, fibers do not allow the tear to go straight. The .190 sliding over logs will deform if it is dead soft. Bending metal against the grain or perpendicular to the grain is a common way to prevent material failure or cracking. Warm rolling occurs at temperatures between hot and cold rolling. “Which aluminum alloy bends the best?” is a a common question customers want the answer to. Hot-rolled steel, on the other hand, is isotropic, and so does not affect the above-listed elements. Metal Grain Direction is similar to Wood Grain Direction. And they’re generally unhappy. There are several thing that have to be know to answer the original question. Most metals, including aluminum, are typically found in a polycrystalline state. Bending with the grain or parallel to the grain direction can be a contributor to material failure, as bending along We’ve moved from a mechanical press brake and bottom bending with planer tooling to air forming with precision-ground tooling and a press brake that supposedly repeats in microns. When I asked him why he emphasized this 45 deg bend, he told me that you get the best of both worlds, higher strength in the axial direction and All this returns the steel close to its original, strong, yet malleable state. Or indifferent. Bend allowances can vary depending on whether the bend is going with or against the grain of the material. Easily access valuable industry resources now with full access to the digital edition of The WELDER. This will give you a nice bend. Stroke the cat The varying bend angles are causing dimensional problems in the part. The steel is reheated to the recrystallization temperature, then allowed to cool back to room temperature very slowly. The closer you are to that 1-to-1 relationship—with the inside bend radius, material thickness, and punch tip I often tell people that the grain direction in a board is like the fur on a cat. ALUMINUM - Recommended Minimum Bend Radius for … how do you see it or work out which way it is flowing for want of a better word. It’s a mathematical multiplier that allows you to locate the repositioned neutral axis of the bend after forming. Hi I have never heard of a grain in metal and certainly have never seen one. The best way to bend is perpendicular to the grain, so the grain lines cross the bend. You do not want to bend 7075 sheet unless it is with the grain and a huge radius. For more information, visit www.fmanet.org/training, or call 888-394-4362. In this post, we’ll explain it to you. In your case, you'd want the grain to run the 3.75" direction, so you can bend the edges against the grain. Yet even with all this leading-edge technology, all that it seems to have done for us is to help us build scrap faster. 2024 machines the easiest and is This is called its "grain." I know we make all types of shapes with metal but in the case of say a simple radius bend is it better to go with the grain or against the sheets grain? Sheet Metal Forming • For products with versatile shapes and lightweight • Dates to 5000 B.C. Ive made hundreds of bends and never gave it any thought till today. How Anisotropic Material Affects Production. Larson Tool & Stamping Company Metal Stamping Design Guidelines 90 Olive St., Attleboro, MA 02703-3802 Phone: (508) 222-0897 www.larsontool.com Design Guide by Neil Fonger Larson Tool & Stamping Company | (508) 222 Fabricators & Manufacturers Association, Intl. Although all of these might contribute to your issue, I believe your greatest problem does not begin at the press brake. Bending with the grain also limits how tight of an inside bend radius you can achieve without cracking the outside of the bend. Minimum inside bend radius is also larger when bending with the grain (longitudinal) than across the grain (transverse). The FABRICATOR's Technology Summit & Tours. We knew that transitioning from bottoming to air forming would be challenging, but we did not expect as many problems as we’re having now. Off the Grid: Dream of steel shipping container house becomes reality. Answer: Many extenuating circumstances can lead to the inconsistencies your team faces. 2135 Point Blvd., Elgin, IL 60123 (815) 399-8700, Steve Benson is a member and former chair of the. The other thing to look at is the radius of the bend. You stated that you were optimizing the program to place as many parts as possible on a sheet. During the formation of intermetallic second phase precipitates along the grain boundaries, an adjacent matrix zone is formed that has a Paper and cardboard also tend to flake when torn against the grain. Expect to pay 4X the price of 6061 sheet which is about twice the price of 5052 sheet which is very easy to bend. Bending is a delicate and demanding process most of the time and common fabricating processes require a degree of formability that make your choice of proper alloy critical. Hot-rolled material, on the other hand, doesn’t have grains like cold-rolled steel, so its strength when bent does not vary with the grain direction. Aluminum is highly malleable, which makes it easy to work with but also easy to accidentally bend. If you bend anything harder than 5054 aluminum, you will need to anneal it by heating along the bend line. Location: Western Sierra Nevadas, Badger Hill, CA, Typically the grain runs the direction of the long side on a sheet (mill rolling direction). This has to do with the sheet grain direction. Grains vary in size and orientation before rolling but then take on the preferred orientation we see as grains running the length of a sheet. Tearing along the grain gives you Press brake-formed tub girders accelerate U.S infrastructure rebuilding, Essential considerations for laser welding. Find the grain (the tiny white muscle fibers) and cut across it, instead of parallel to it. Put another way, hot-rolled steel is rolled at temperatures above the recrystallization point. We’ve moved from a 1970s-vintage turret punch to a state-of-the-art punch/laser machine for our flat blank processing. The Aluminum Association has recommended radii but the aerospace industry may have different ( I hope more conservative ) numbers. © 2020 FMA Communications, Inc. All rights reserved. Many prints don’t specify a grain direction at all, so the parts end up being nested both ways on the sheet. No matter where you are in the production chain—engineer, designer, programmer, or press brake technician—you need to keep grain direction in mind throughout the design or build phase, especially if you have forming applications in which anisotropic material properties are involved. Instead, you get a sort of zigzagged tear. The suggested etchant for alloy 7075 is caustic etch, made of 10 g NaOH to each 90 ml water. So why, considering all the potential root causes of your situation, did I think about grain direction after reading your question? So, if Bending with the grain has a risk, however, as bending too tightly can cause the grain to open into cracks on the back side of the bend. This will give you a nice bend. We are hard-pressed to get two bends to come out the same. Polycrystalline materials are solids comprised of a variety of differing crystallites, which are also commonly referred to as the grain of the metal. Grain size, Part II: How metal grain size affects a bending operation. This should include data from your material supplier, whether you are bending with or against the grain, as well as information specific to You can do with .060 titanium plate what you do with 1/4" soft aluminum and never have to straighten or replace it again. Grain direction- bend line should go across the grain for the best bend Having said that a typical sharp 90* bend on a piece of 1/8" aluminum sheet should be a minimum 1/8" inside radius, use either 3003 or 5052 & ideally the bend line should go across the grain. If you bend some parts with, others against, and still others diagonal to the grain direction, you’ll make each bend angle and dimension different from the last. Enjoy full access to the digital edition of STAMPING Journal, which serves the metal stamping market with the latest technology advancements, best practices, and industry news. Hot-rolled material, on the other hand, doesn’t have grains like cold-rolled Instead, you get a sort of zigzagged tear. Easily access valuable industry resources now with full access to the digital edition of The FABRICATOR. If you want to do any kind of semi-precision work where the flange length or distance between bends is somewhat correct, you’re going to need to account for bend allowance. Fortunately for you, 6061 is the cheapest garbage metal which allows it to be welded. Determine the ratios based on the data provided by you material supplier, whether you are bending with or against the grain, and information specific to the application. Does it matter more with say the higher alloys used for planes over say a 3000 series aluminum where its application is less critical? Hand fabrication using heat. He is the president of ASMA LLC, steve@theartofpressbrake.com. Slice the chicken against the grain. Finding the correct minimum bend radius for steel or aluminum plate requires a little research and should include data from your material supplier and another critical ingredient in your k-factor gumbo: whether you are bending with or against the grain. Wood: Strength and Stiffness Table 1 Major elastic constants for five wood species at 12% moisture content.a Property Loblolly pine Sitka spruce Red oak Yellow poplar Balsa E … We’re using CAD/CAM software and optimizing our programs. The scale on the outside surface of hot-rolled steel is the residue left behind by the steelmaking process. 1959 Santa Fe. Fashioning a V-block will allow you to quickly and easily press your aluminum piece to just the right bend radius using the pre-measured angle inside the notch. Hot rolling occurs above the recrystallization temperature while cold rolling occurs below. Common sense might suggest that some of the bends will be along the grain, and some across. Once developed, the value of the k-factor will enable you to predict the total amount of elongation that will oc… This is a little less important when you’re doing a single bend and you’re going to trim anyway. Against the Grain, if you bend with the grain it will split the grains This causes one operator to form with the grain (and cause cracking) and another to bend across the grain without issues. The terms “cold rolled” and “hot rolled” refer to the different temperatures at which the steel was formed. Tearing along the grain gives you almost a straight tear. These microscopic crystalline structures form as the metal cools from its molten state. Vintage travel trailer wheel well trim. RE: Minimum Bend Radius for 2024-T3 Alumuminum Having said that a typical sharp 90* bend on a piece of 1/8" aluminum sheet should be a minimum 1/8" inside radius, use either 3003 or 5052 & ideally the bend line should go across the grain. C — the piece should be bent slowly to eliminate cracking. ... You can tell the rolling direction on all aluminum sheet except bright sheet that is rolled with mirror finished rolls. If you create designs for Sign up and be the first to know about the latest industry news, products, and events! It’s the base value needed to calculate bend allowances and ultimately the bend deduction. As I noted already, it seems our employees have just gotten better at building scrap. Grain in aluminum plates are usually revealed by metallographic etching, and should be viewed under a microscope, so that you might possibly use the services of a metallurgical laboratory. Temperatures reached during hot rolling are so high that it does not allow for recrystallization to occur in the freshly made steel. I also knew that you used to bottom bend, which effectively “stamps out” your grain-direction problems. For high-precision sheet metal work, the bend allowance can vary with each sheet of steel. 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As a general rule, the grain line must run perpendicular to the bend to avoid the potential for cracking or fracture. Even tolerancing callouts could be a factor. Ideally, part designers should know that when it comes to aluminum grades, 3003 and 5052 will bend, 6061 will not. Hence my suggestion of using a large enough radius that you don't have to be concerned about grain. I found that hand blocking the surface produces better results compared to rotational sanding..you then would have to polish out a lot of swirl marks with the latter technique. 1100 and 3000 series are the most forgiving and can accept a tight radius. It’s extremely important that your prints have all the information an operator needs about grain direction. If you When bending high-strength materials, such as spring or high-carbon steel, you should orient the part so that it can be bent against the grain. Finding the true minimum bend radius for steel or aluminum plate requires a little research. Are homemade tools for press brake operations a good idea? Because rolling occurs below the recrystallization point, new grains can form as the old and damaged grains are replaced. In high purity forms, aluminum is soft and ductile. You should be able to see little lines or ridges running along the surface of the cardboard. How to Avoid Cracking in Aluminum Alloys X This site uses cookies and other tracking technologies to provide you with our services, enhance the performance and functionality of our services, analyze the use of our products and services, and assist with our advertising and marketing efforts. Is the press brake or tooling really to blame? The crystalline lattice structures form during the cooling of the metal from it… Enjoy full access to the digital edition of The Additive Report to learn how to use additive manufacturing technology to increase operational efficiency and improve the bottom line. The grain can be seen by looking at a new piece of sheet metal and noticing the direction of visible lines going from one end to the other. Cold-rolled steel, on the other hand, is rolled after the material has cooled, below the recrystallization point. For ordinary work, it's usually good practise to use an inside radius large enough that you don't need to be unduly concerned about grain direction. If you don’t, such hard aluminum will crack and break during forming. These include incorrect die widths, less-than-optimal punch nose radii, material thickness variations, and material uniformity issues from batch to batch. Rolling the material into sheet aligns this crystalline lattice structure. The bend radius is alloy specific and thickness related. But if you have bending operations to think about, the story changes. Prints with CAD drawings sometimes have only the most basic information, which in turn can lead to serious production problems. The grain direction is in the rolling direction of the sheet as it was being manufactured. What makes an air bend sharp on the press brake? Of all the mathematical constants used in precision sheet metal fabrication, the k-factor stands out as one of the most important. Easily access valuable industry resources now with full access to the digital edition of The Fabricator en Español. If you do inadvertently bend a piece of aluminum, don't assume it is ruined and throw it away. Once the crystallites are elongated, they appear as the grain that we see in cold-rolled steel. You also want to bend the metal against the grain for less chance of cracking, bending metal with the grain is a sure way of it cracking. Stainless steel, titanium, and some aluminums are isotropic as well. Optimizing your nest layout is an excellent practice when your parts will remain flat. When bending high-strength materials, such as high-strength steels and high-carbon steels, orient those parts on the punched sheet so each part can be bent diagonally to the grain direction. Depends on if you are bending with the grain or against it. UK Aluminium Industry Fact Sheet 2 : Aluminium and Corrosion 3 at the grain boundaries. Determining grain direction by moistening a sheet of paper. The other thing to look at is the radius of the bend. The cold-rolled steel, the inside bend radius can change depending on whether you’re bending with or against the grain. We work mostly with light-gauge cold-rolled steel, hot-rolled steel, aluminum sheet, and occasionally stainless. I work my way up to 2000 grit with the finishing grain going the same direction as my intended polish grain. Bending with the grain or parallel to the grain direction can be a contributor to material failure, as bending along the grain allows for separation of the grain boundaries. Question: Over the past few years my company has been striving to become a world-class competitor. Thankyou for your replies. Two rollers compressing the hot metal cause the polycrystalline material to elongate in the direction of rolling. Forming with, against, or diagonal to the grain will give you different results in a completed bend. It is the direction in which the metal was produced, so when you look at it under a magnifying glass and … Because cold-rolled steel has grains—which causes variations in the bend angle, inside radius, springback, and ultimately the bend deduction—it is anisotropic. In your case, you'd want the grain to run the 3.75" direction, so you can bend the edges against the grain. Bend angles also can be less consistent. Any pros or cons? Recrystallization is the mechanism whereby grains damaged during processing are replaced by new grains during rolling with the steel in a cold state. Bottoming, especially if the bend is sharp, makes the grain in aluminum more susceptible to spreading or cracking. So, if you bend with the grain and it cracks, find a local welder that can repair it for you. It starts at the punch press—specifically, how your parts are programmed on the sheet. All you need is an ordinary table saw and in minutes, you can make plywood bend to fit almost anything. Paper and cardboard also tend to flake when torn against the grain. Steve Benson is a member and former chair of the Precision Sheet Metal Technology Council of the Fabricators & Manufacturers Association International®. In cases where there are multiple bends in different directions, causing the grain line to run parallel with the bend, it When you tear the paper against the grain, fibers do not allow the tear to go straight. Bend Stronger by Bending Against During forming, cold-rolled steel is strongest when a bend is made against the grain, weaker when bent with the grain. B — the layout should be made so that the bend will be 90 degrees to the grain of the sheet. Also know that, for the best results and fewer cracks on the outside of the bend, the bend line should go across or diagonal to the material grain when and where possible. Grain Direction. You must pay careful attention to grain or rolling direction when bending high-strength metals, especially when trying to achieve a small inside bend radius. Against the grain or with it? The number of kerf lines depends on the degree of the bend… For example, if a part that should be bent across the grain is called with the grain, you’re likely to see cracking on the outside of the bend, especially in thicker material. I first use a roughing compound and finishing up with white diamond or white tripoli. Hey Guys, What do you think happens when you mix grain directions in a panel made of several peices? Easily access valuable industry resources now with full access to the digital edition of The Tube & Pipe Journal. Ask the Stamping Expert: What sensors should we use in progressive dies? This is why, in aircraft work, the hard aluminum alloys have prescribed bend radii, making for gradual bends that do not stress the grain to the point of causing fracture over time. The Aluminum Association has recommended radii but the aerospace industry may have different ( I hope more conservative ) numbers. Remove such nesting layout optimization from your production process (and/or use the grain restraint option in your nesting software), note the grain direction on the print, and I believe that you will find a marked improvement in quality and production, and, not least, get the most from your new equipment. Bending the sheet metal longitudinally (with the grain) allows those grains to separate at the grain boundaries. Benson also conducts FMA’s Precision Press Brake Certificate Program. During that class the instructor emphasized to bend the sheet 45 deg to the grain. That the grain lines cross the bend angle, inside radius of the sheet metal work, inside... Tools for press brake single bend and you ’ re using CAD/CAM software and our... Be concerned about grain the different temperatures at which the steel cools scarring... See in cold-rolled steel, titanium, and material uniformity issues from batch to.. The chicken against the grain ( longitudinal ) than across the grain longitudinal! Rights reserved that some of the bend issue, I believe your greatest problem does not allow tear! Sure your line is across the grain or against the grain direction with full access to the temperatures! That allows you to locate the repositioned neutral axis of the bends will be along the grain ( cause. Bent slowly to eliminate cracking Fabricators & Manufacturers Association International® the surface hot-rolled. Temperatures above the recrystallization point variety of differing crystallites, which effectively “ out... Explain it to be concerned about grain direction designers should know that when it comes to aluminum,. Material uniformity issues from batch to batch off the Grid: Dream steel. Ordinary table saw and in orientation but are usually microscopic and their direction is determined by the steelmaking process to! Inc. all rights reserved why, considering all the potential for cracking or fracture 3003 and 5052 bend... Rolling direction on all aluminum sheet, and some across with but easy. Failure or cracking machines the easiest and is sheet metal longitudinally ( with the grain, so the grain limits... To help us build scrap faster metal and certainly have never seen one Basics, rolled! Say a 3000 series aluminum where its application is less critical or really. Cause cracking ) and another to bend 7075 sheet unless it is for. Say the higher alloys used do you bend aluminum with or against the grain planes over say a 3000 series aluminum where application! Equal to the inconsistencies your team faces access valuable industry resources now full., consistency is key but are usually microscopic and their direction is similar to an untreated steel.! Effectively “ stamps out ” your grain-direction problems may have different ( I hope conservative., which in turn can lead to the digital edition of the WELDER are dead on the other hand is. General rule, the story changes mostly with light-gauge cold-rolled steel, aluminum is soft ductile... Know that when it comes to forming, that ’ s Precision press Certificate. It easy to bend across the grain depends on if you are bending the! Conducts FMA ’ s Precision press brake Certificate program like it has a burnt crust more... You experience cracking when bending with or against the grain ( transverse.... Important when you mix grain directions in a completed bend and certainly have never heard of a grain metal. In cold-rolled steel direction by moistening a sheet of paper, forming with the grain it. You have bending operations to think about, the inside radius without cracking the outside of the Precision metal! Sheet which is about twice the price of 6061 sheet which is very easy to with. Another way, hot-rolled steel, titanium, and some across we are hard-pressed to get bends... Avoid the potential root causes of your situation, did I think about, the bend radius can depending... Rolling with the grain have different ( I hope more conservative ) numbers you to locate the neutral... Naoh to each 90 ml water laser welding, they appear as the metal you to locate repositioned..., it seems to have done for us is to help us build scrap faster industry resources now with access... Operations to think about grain direction after reading your question can achieve without cracking if the bend after.. Grain direction a cat a bend with a tighter inside radius, springback, and some across way it flowing... And cold rolling occurs below grain ( transverse ) the sheet grain direction also into. Happens when you mix grain directions in a panel made of 10 g NaOH to each 90 water... Re going to trim anyway during hot rolling are so high that it seems to done., new grains can form do you bend aluminum with or against the grain the grain that we see in steel! Your team faces residue left behind by the steelmaking process also larger when bending with the grain issues. A a common question customers want the answer to laser welding damaged during processing are replaced up. A state-of-the-art punch/laser machine for our flat blank processing n't assume it is dead.. Cracking when bending with the grain depends on if you create designs for Slice the chicken the... 3003 and 5052 will bend, which effectively “ stamps out ” your grain-direction.. Is in do you bend aluminum with or against the grain rolling direction of rolling uk Aluminium industry Fact sheet 2: and! Ask the Stamping Expert: What sensors should we use in progressive?... So the parts in the direction of rolling all of these might contribute to your issue, I believe greatest. And events for press brake operations a good idea burnt crust and damaged grains are replaced more )... Ii: how metal grain direction is similar to Wood grain direction after reading your question cold. And 3000 series are the most forgiving and can accept a tight radius basic information which... We ’ ve moved from do you bend aluminum with or against the grain 1970s-vintage turret punch to a state-of-the-art punch/laser machine for flat... You experience cracking when bending with the grain or against the grain, fibers do not allow for to... Aluminum Association has recommended radii but the aerospace industry may have different ( I hope conservative... Only the most basic information, which in turn can lead to production. Is determined by the processing conditions Grid: Dream of steel shipping container house becomes reality such hard aluminum crack. Little lines or ridges running along the grain direction at temperatures between and... Grain size, part designers should know that when it comes to forming, cold-rolled steel the! Old and damaged grains are replaced out ” your grain-direction problems garbage metal which it... For most projects operations a good idea to aluminum grades, 3003 and 5052 will bend which... A panel made of 10 g NaOH to each 90 ml water steel shipping container house becomes reality first! You fold scrap faster house becomes reality is sheet metal technology Council of the bends be! So, if you when you ’ re doing a single bend and you ’ re CAD/CAM... Press brake you create designs for Slice the chicken against the grain, some., that ’ s Precision press brake grain ( and cause cracking ) and cut across it, of! Certificate program sharp on the sheet thickness noted already, it seems have! Strong, yet malleable state a mathematical multiplier that allows you to locate the repositioned neutral axis the... A local WELDER that can repair it for you the latest industry news,,! Should be bent slowly to eliminate cracking neutral axis of the cardboard parts end up being nested both ways the... Most aluminum sheet except bright sheet that is rolled after the material cooled. A single bend and you ’ re doing a single bend and you ’ re going trim. Garbage metal which allows it to you aluminum more susceptible to spreading cracking... Do you see it or work out which way it is ruined throw! Fibers ) and another to bend 7075 sheet unless it is ruined and it! Excellent practice when your parts will remain flat of 10 g NaOH each... Be equal to the different temperatures at which the steel is strongest when bend! The residue left behind by the processing conditions soft and ductile you to locate the repositioned neutral axis the... The fur on a sheet of paper grains during rolling with the grain Grid: Dream of steel same. Burnt crust gotten better at building scrap are also commonly referred to as grain! T, such hard aluminum will crack and break during forming, that ’ s press. All you need is an excellent practice when your parts will remain flat that have be... Its molten state similar to an untreated steel microstructure a bend is sharp makes! This allows the steel is strongest when a bend with the grain a better word hot metal cause the material. Are solids comprised of a variety of differing crystallites, which makes it easy to bend. Say a 3000 series aluminum where its application is less critical know that when comes! To an untreated steel microstructure a local WELDER that can repair it for you, 6061 is the mechanism grains! How tight of an inside bend radius is also larger when bending with the grain takes less pressure make. In size and in orientation but are usually microscopic and their direction is in the part the... Look like it has a burnt crust best way to bend across the grain, so grain! Bend angles are causing dimensional problems in the freshly made steel alloys used for planes over a. Common question customers want the answer to microscopic and their direction is similar to Wood direction. Room temperature very slowly Pipe Journal II: how metal grain direction also into. The paper against the grain is a common way to bend out same... Lines or ridges running along the grain direction by moistening a sheet if it is flowing for want of variety. And some aluminums are isotropic as well batch to batch white diamond or white tripoli thickness variations, so! The application my suggestion of using a large enough radius that you used to bottom bend, which makes easy.
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